The Power of Disruptive Protest in Driving Reform: Explaining the Failed case of Labour in Malaysia
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.15173/glj.v7i3.2500Abstract
We reflect upon Malaysian labour’s efforts in advocating reform. Its actions to focus political attention on labour issues at the 2013 general election are analysed. Although the election presented a rare opportunity for labour to bring workers’ issues to centre stage, it did not do so. Piven’s theory of “interdependent” power provides a useful lens through which labour’s failure can be analysed. We show the enormous challenges preventing Malaysian labour from activating “interdependent” power. Critically, the state has systematically maintained artificial distinctions to divide working people from each other and fragment them as a class. The use of state force to crush opposition elements and its employment of highly discriminatory industrialisation policies have additionally militated against labour's efforts to mobilise as a class to secure reform. Piven's theory likely has limited applicability in these authoritarian and non-liberal contexts.
References
References
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Barr, M. (2000) “Trade Unions in an Elitist Society: The Singapore Story” Australian Journal of Politics & History, 46, 4, 480–496
Brown, D. (1994) The State and Ethnic Politics in South East Asia (Routledge: London, New York) pp.143-179
Brown, A. (2004) Labour, Politics and the State in Industrialising Thailand (London, UK: Routledge)
Brown, A. (2007) “Labour and Modes of Participation in Thailand” Democratization, 14, 5, 817-834
Brown, A. and Chatrakul Na Ayudhya, S. (2013) “Labour Activism in Thailand” In: Social Activism in South East Asia, Ford, M. (ed.) (Routledge: Oxon) pp. 104-118
Case, W. (2001) “Malaysia’s Resilient Pseudo democracy”, Journal of Democracy, 12(1): 45-57
Cham, BN. (1975) “Class and Communal Conflict in Malaysia” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 5, 4, 446-461
Chin, C. (2000), “The state of the state in globalization: Social order and economic restructuring in Malaysia”, Third World Quarterly, 21, 6, 1035-1057
Chin, J. (2013) “So Close Yet So Far: Strategies in the 13th Malaysian Elections” The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs, 102, 6, 533-540
Chua, BN. (2007) “Political Culturalism, Representation, and the People’s Action Party of Singapore” Democratization, 14, 5, 911-927
Crinis, V. (2008) “Malaysia: Women, labour activism and unions” In: Broadbent, K. & Ford, M. (eds) Women and Labour Organising in Asia, Diversity, Autonomy and Activism. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 50–65
Crinis, V. (2010), “Sweat or No Sweat: Foreign Workers in the Garment Industry in Malaysia”, Journal of Contemporary Asia, 40, 4, 589-611
Crouch, H. (1993) “Malaysia: Neither Authoritarian nor Democratic” In: Hewison, K., Robison, R., Rodan, G. (eds.) Authoritarianism, Democracy and Capitalism: Southeast Asia in the 1990s (Sydney: Allen & Unwin) 75-108
de Neve, G. (2006) The Everyday Politics of Labour: Working Lives in India’s Informal Economy, Social Science Press: New Delhi
DiCaprio, A. (2013) “The Demand Side of Social Protection: Lessons from Cambodia’s Labour Rights Experience” World Development, 48, 108-119
Frege, C. Heery, E. and Turner, L. (2004), “The New Solidarity? Trade Union Coalition-Building in Five Countries” In: Varieties of Unionism, Frege, C. and Kelly, J. (eds.) (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 137–158
Ford, M. (2009) Workers and Intellectuals: NGO’s, Trade Unions and the Indonesian Labour Movement (Asian Studies Association of Australia: Southeast Asia Publication Series)
Gallin, D (2000), “Trade Unions and NGOs: A Necessary Partnership for Social Development” UNRISD, Programme Paper, at: < http://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/search/5678DFBA8A99EEB780256B5E004C3737?OpenDocument >
Giersdorf, S. and Croissant, A. (2011) “Civil Society and Competitive Authoritarianism in Malaysia” Journal of Civil Society, 7, 1, 1–21
Hadiz, V. (2001) “New Organising Vehicles in Indonesia: Origins and Prospects” In: Organising Labour in Globalising Asia, Brown, A. and Hutchison. J (eds). (London and New York: Routledge), pp. 108–126
Heckscher, C. (2006) “Organisations, Movements and Networks” New York Law School Review, 50, 313–336
Hewison, K. (1999) “Political Space in Southeast Asia: 'Asian-style' and Other Democracies” Democratization, 6, 1, 224-245
Hill, D. (2012) “Port Reform, South Asian Migrant Workers and Spaces of Vulnerability in Port Klang, Malaysia”, Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 53, 2, 105-117
Hirschman, C. (1986) “The Making of Race in Colonial Malaya: Political Economy and Racial Ideology” Sociological Forum, 1, 2, 330-361
Husin Ali, S. (1984), “Social relations: The Ethnic and Class Factors” In: Husin Ali, S. (Ed.), Ethnicity, Class and Development: Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Social Science Association), 13-31
Ismail, R. & Jajri, I. (2012) “Gender wage differentials and discrimination in Malaysian labour mar¬ket” World Applied Sciences Journal, 19, 5, 719–728
Jesudasen, J. (1995) “Statist Democracy and the Limits to Civil Society in Malaysia” Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, 33, 335–356
Jomo, KS. (2014) “Malaysia Incorporated: Corporatism a la Mahathir” Institutions and Economics, 6, 1, 73-94
Juliawan, B. (2011) “Street level Politics: Labour Protests in Post-Authoritarian Indonesia” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 41, 3, 349-370
Kerkvliet, B. (2002) Everyday Politics in the Philippines: Class and Status Relations in a Central Luzon Village, (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield)
Kerkvliet, BJ. (2005) The Power of Everyday Politics: How Vietnamese Peasants Transformed National Policy, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press)
Khoo, BT. (2013) “Interim Report: 13th General Election in Malaysia: Issues, Outcomes and Implications” Institute of Developing Economies: Japan External Trade Organisation, at < http://www.ide.go.jp/English/Publish/Download/Report/2013/2013_malaysia.html >
Landau, I. (2008) "Law and Civil Society in Cambodia and Vietnam: A Gramscian Perspective" Journal of Contemporary Asia, 38, 2, 244–258
Leggett, C. (2008) “Trade Unions in Singapore: Corporatist Paternalism” in Benson, J. and Zhu, Y. (eds.) Trade Unions in Asia, (Routledge: London) pp. 102-120
Levitsky, S. and Way, L. (2002) “The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism” Journal of Democracy, 13, 2, 51-65
Li, J. (2012) "Fight Silently: Everyday Resistance in Surviving State Owned Enterprises in Contemporary China," Global Labour Journal, 3, 2, 194-216
Lian , KF. and Appadurai, J. (2011) “Race, Class and Politics in Peninsular Malaysia: The General Election of 2008” Asian Studies Review, 35, 63-82
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McCarthy, D. and Zald, M. (1977) "Mobilisation and Social Movements: A Partial Theory" American Journal of Sociology, 1212-1241
Menon, J. (2009) “Macroeconomic Management amid Ethnic Diversity: Fifty Years of Malaysian Experience” Journal of Asian Economics, 20, 25-33
Miles, L. & Croucher, R. (2013) “Gramsci, counter-hegemony and union-CSO coalitions in Malaysia” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 43, 3, 413 – 427
Miles, L. (2014) “The Social Relations Approach, empowerment and women factory workers in Malaysia” Economic and Industrial Democracy, DOI: 10.1177/0143831X14533734
Mohd Sani, MA. (2011) “Managing the state - civil society relations in public policy: Deliberative democracy vis-a-vis civil society movements in Malaysia” African Journal of Business Management, 5, 21, 8399-8409
Moniruzzaman, M. (2013) “The 13th Malaysian General Election: Uncertainties and Expectations” Intellectual Discourse, 21, 1, 55-70
Ng, C. (2006) “Muted struggles: Challenges of women workers” In: Ng, C. Mohamad, M. & Tan, BH. (eds) Feminism and the Women's Movement in Malaysia: An Unsung (R)evolution. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 106–130.
Nissen, B. (2004a) “The Effectiveness and Limits of Labour-Community Coalitions: Evidence from South Florida” Labour Studies Journal, 29, 1, 67–88
Nissen, B. (2004b) “Labour-Community Coalition Strengths and Weaknesses: Case Study Evidence” In: Partnering for Change: Unions and Community Groups Buld Coalitions for Economic Justice, Reynolds, D. (ed.) (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe), 46-66
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Piven, F. (2006) Challenging Authority: How Ordinary People Change America, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers
Piven, F. (2008) “ASA 2007 Presidential Address: Can Power from Below Change the World?” American Sociological Review, 73, 1, 1-14
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http://inthesetimes.com/working/entry/12875/piven_labor_revival_needs_push_from_outside_and_below> (accessed 20 August, 2014)
Rodan, G. (2004) Transparency and Authoritarian Rule in South-East Asia: Singapore and Malaysia, (London: Routledge)
Rowley C. and Bhopal, M. (2006) “The ethnic factor in state-labour relations: The case of Malaysia” Capital and Class, 30, 1, 87-115
Schock, K. (1999) "People Power and Political Opportunities: Social Movement Mobilisation and Outcomes in the Philippines and Burma" Social Problems, 46, 3, 355-375
Scott, J. (1985) Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (Yale University Press)
Sim, S. (2006) “Hegemonic Authoritarianism and Singapore: Economics, Ideology and the Asian Economic Crisis”, Journal of Contemporary Asia, 36, 2, 143–159
Silver, B. & Zhang. L. (2009” “China as an Emerging Epicenter of World Labour Unrest” In: Hung, Ho-Fung (ed.), China and the Transformation of Global Capitalism, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 174-187
Spooner, D. (2004) “Trade Unions and NGOs: The Need for Cooperation” Development in Practice, 14 (1/2), 19–33
Sultana, A. & Noor, Z. (2011) “Gender perspective of working mothers’ challenges in their family” Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 5, 12, 727–731
Suryomenggolo, J. (2009) “Labour, Politics and the Law: A Legal Political Analysis of Indonesia’s Labour Law Reform Program” Labour and Management in Development, 9, 1–16
Tajuddin, A. (2012) Malaysia in the World Economy (1824-2011): Capitalism, Ethnic Divisions and "Managed" Democracy, (Lexington Books: UK)
Tan, CH. (2007) Employment Relations in Singapore (Pearson Prentice Hall: Singapore)
Tarrow, S. (1994) Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Mass Politics in the Modern State, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Tattersall, A. (2005) “There is Power in Coalition: A Framework for Assessing How and When Union Community Coalitions are Effective and Enhance Union Power” Labour and Industry, 16, 2, 97–112
Tattersall, A. (2010) Power in Coalition: Strategies for Strong Unions and Social Change (Ithaca: Cornell University Press)
Thawnghmung, A. (2011) "The Politics of Everyday Life in Twenty-First Century Myanmar" The Journal of Asian Studies, 70, 3, 641-656
Tilly, C. (1978) From Mobilisation to Revolution, Addison-Wesley, Reading: MA
Tumin, M. & Ndoma, I. (2013) “Virtual civil society: resurgence of social capital and the 2008 General Election in Malaysia” Malaysian Journal of Democracy and Election Studies, 1, 1, 86-95
Ufen, A. (2009) “The Transformation of Political Party Opposition in Malaysia and its Implications for the Electoral Authoritarian Regime” Democratization, 16, 3, 604-627
Verma, V. (2002a) “Debating Rights in Malaysia: Contradictions and Challenges” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 32, 1, 108–130
Verma, V. (2002b) Malaysia: State and Civil Society in Transition. Boulder: LR Publishers
Wang, LK. (2007) “Ways of seeing Malaysian women: Sketches of women in magazines in the global age” Malaysian Journal of Communication, 23, 57–69
Weiss, M. (2005) “Prickly Ambivalence: State, Society and Semi Democracy in Malaysia.” Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, 43, 1, 61–81
Weiss, M. (2009) “Edging Toward a New Politics in Malaysia: Civil Society at the Gate.” Asian Survey, 49, 5, 741–758
Welsh, B. (2013) “Malaysia’s Elections: A Step Backward” Journal of Democracy, 24, 4, 136-150
Wye, CK. & Ismail, R. (2012) “Labour market structure in Malaysia: Pre- and post-market gender comparison” International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 2, 10, 259–284
Athukorala, P and Devadason, E. (2012) “The Impact of Foreign Labour on Host Country Wages: The Experience of a Southern Host, Malaysia” World Development, 40, 8, 497–1510
Barr, M. (2000) “Trade Unions in an Elitist Society: The Singapore Story” Australian Journal of Politics & History, 46, 4, 480–496
Brown, D. (1994) The State and Ethnic Politics in South East Asia (Routledge: London, New York) pp.143-179
Brown, A. (2004) Labour, Politics and the State in Industrialising Thailand (London, UK: Routledge)
Brown, A. (2007) “Labour and Modes of Participation in Thailand” Democratization, 14, 5, 817-834
Brown, A. and Chatrakul Na Ayudhya, S. (2013) “Labour Activism in Thailand” In: Social Activism in South East Asia, Ford, M. (ed.) (Routledge: Oxon) pp. 104-118
Case, W. (2001) “Malaysia’s Resilient Pseudo democracy”, Journal of Democracy, 12(1): 45-57
Cham, BN. (1975) “Class and Communal Conflict in Malaysia” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 5, 4, 446-461
Chin, C. (2000), “The state of the state in globalization: Social order and economic restructuring in Malaysia”, Third World Quarterly, 21, 6, 1035-1057
Chin, J. (2013) “So Close Yet So Far: Strategies in the 13th Malaysian Elections” The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs, 102, 6, 533-540
Chua, BN. (2007) “Political Culturalism, Representation, and the People’s Action Party of Singapore” Democratization, 14, 5, 911-927
Crinis, V. (2008) “Malaysia: Women, labour activism and unions” In: Broadbent, K. & Ford, M. (eds) Women and Labour Organising in Asia, Diversity, Autonomy and Activism. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 50–65
Crinis, V. (2010), “Sweat or No Sweat: Foreign Workers in the Garment Industry in Malaysia”, Journal of Contemporary Asia, 40, 4, 589-611
Crouch, H. (1993) “Malaysia: Neither Authoritarian nor Democratic” In: Hewison, K., Robison, R., Rodan, G. (eds.) Authoritarianism, Democracy and Capitalism: Southeast Asia in the 1990s (Sydney: Allen & Unwin) 75-108
de Neve, G. (2006) The Everyday Politics of Labour: Working Lives in India’s Informal Economy, Social Science Press: New Delhi
DiCaprio, A. (2013) “The Demand Side of Social Protection: Lessons from Cambodia’s Labour Rights Experience” World Development, 48, 108-119
Frege, C. Heery, E. and Turner, L. (2004), “The New Solidarity? Trade Union Coalition-Building in Five Countries” In: Varieties of Unionism, Frege, C. and Kelly, J. (eds.) (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 137–158
Ford, M. (2009) Workers and Intellectuals: NGO’s, Trade Unions and the Indonesian Labour Movement (Asian Studies Association of Australia: Southeast Asia Publication Series)
Gallin, D (2000), “Trade Unions and NGOs: A Necessary Partnership for Social Development” UNRISD, Programme Paper, at: < http://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/search/5678DFBA8A99EEB780256B5E004C3737?OpenDocument >
Giersdorf, S. and Croissant, A. (2011) “Civil Society and Competitive Authoritarianism in Malaysia” Journal of Civil Society, 7, 1, 1–21
Hadiz, V. (2001) “New Organising Vehicles in Indonesia: Origins and Prospects” In: Organising Labour in Globalising Asia, Brown, A. and Hutchison. J (eds). (London and New York: Routledge), pp. 108–126
Heckscher, C. (2006) “Organisations, Movements and Networks” New York Law School Review, 50, 313–336
Hewison, K. (1999) “Political Space in Southeast Asia: 'Asian-style' and Other Democracies” Democratization, 6, 1, 224-245
Hill, D. (2012) “Port Reform, South Asian Migrant Workers and Spaces of Vulnerability in Port Klang, Malaysia”, Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 53, 2, 105-117
Hirschman, C. (1986) “The Making of Race in Colonial Malaya: Political Economy and Racial Ideology” Sociological Forum, 1, 2, 330-361
Husin Ali, S. (1984), “Social relations: The Ethnic and Class Factors” In: Husin Ali, S. (Ed.), Ethnicity, Class and Development: Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Social Science Association), 13-31
Ismail, R. & Jajri, I. (2012) “Gender wage differentials and discrimination in Malaysian labour mar¬ket” World Applied Sciences Journal, 19, 5, 719–728
Jesudasen, J. (1995) “Statist Democracy and the Limits to Civil Society in Malaysia” Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, 33, 335–356
Jomo, KS. (2014) “Malaysia Incorporated: Corporatism a la Mahathir” Institutions and Economics, 6, 1, 73-94
Juliawan, B. (2011) “Street level Politics: Labour Protests in Post-Authoritarian Indonesia” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 41, 3, 349-370
Kerkvliet, B. (2002) Everyday Politics in the Philippines: Class and Status Relations in a Central Luzon Village, (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield)
Kerkvliet, BJ. (2005) The Power of Everyday Politics: How Vietnamese Peasants Transformed National Policy, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press)
Khoo, BT. (2013) “Interim Report: 13th General Election in Malaysia: Issues, Outcomes and Implications” Institute of Developing Economies: Japan External Trade Organisation, at < http://www.ide.go.jp/English/Publish/Download/Report/2013/2013_malaysia.html >
Landau, I. (2008) "Law and Civil Society in Cambodia and Vietnam: A Gramscian Perspective" Journal of Contemporary Asia, 38, 2, 244–258
Leggett, C. (2008) “Trade Unions in Singapore: Corporatist Paternalism” in Benson, J. and Zhu, Y. (eds.) Trade Unions in Asia, (Routledge: London) pp. 102-120
Levitsky, S. and Way, L. (2002) “The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism” Journal of Democracy, 13, 2, 51-65
Li, J. (2012) "Fight Silently: Everyday Resistance in Surviving State Owned Enterprises in Contemporary China," Global Labour Journal, 3, 2, 194-216
Lian , KF. and Appadurai, J. (2011) “Race, Class and Politics in Peninsular Malaysia: The General Election of 2008” Asian Studies Review, 35, 63-82
Malaysia Labour Force Survey Report, 2013, at: < http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=263&Itemid=91&lang=en>
McAdam, D. (1982) Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970, University of Chicago Press: Chicago
McCarthy, D. and Zald, M. (1977) "Mobilisation and Social Movements: A Partial Theory" American Journal of Sociology, 1212-1241
Menon, J. (2009) “Macroeconomic Management amid Ethnic Diversity: Fifty Years of Malaysian Experience” Journal of Asian Economics, 20, 25-33
Miles, L. & Croucher, R. (2013) “Gramsci, counter-hegemony and union-CSO coalitions in Malaysia” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 43, 3, 413 – 427
Miles, L. (2014) “The Social Relations Approach, empowerment and women factory workers in Malaysia” Economic and Industrial Democracy, DOI: 10.1177/0143831X14533734
Mohd Sani, MA. (2011) “Managing the state - civil society relations in public policy: Deliberative democracy vis-a-vis civil society movements in Malaysia” African Journal of Business Management, 5, 21, 8399-8409
Moniruzzaman, M. (2013) “The 13th Malaysian General Election: Uncertainties and Expectations” Intellectual Discourse, 21, 1, 55-70
Ng, C. (2006) “Muted struggles: Challenges of women workers” In: Ng, C. Mohamad, M. & Tan, BH. (eds) Feminism and the Women's Movement in Malaysia: An Unsung (R)evolution. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 106–130.
Nissen, B. (2004a) “The Effectiveness and Limits of Labour-Community Coalitions: Evidence from South Florida” Labour Studies Journal, 29, 1, 67–88
Nissen, B. (2004b) “Labour-Community Coalition Strengths and Weaknesses: Case Study Evidence” In: Partnering for Change: Unions and Community Groups Buld Coalitions for Economic Justice, Reynolds, D. (ed.) (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe), 46-66
Piven, F. and Cloward, R. (1977) Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail, (Random House: New York)
Piven, F. and Cloward, R. (2005) “Rule Making, Rule Breaking, and Power” In: Thomas Janoski, Robert Alford, Alexander Hicks, and Mildred A. Schwartz. (eds.) The Handbook of Political Sociology: States, Civil Societies and Globalisation, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 33-53
Piven, F. (2006) Challenging Authority: How Ordinary People Change America, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers
Piven, F. (2008) “ASA 2007 Presidential Address: Can Power from Below Change the World?” American Sociological Review, 73, 1, 1-14
Piven, F. (2012) “Piven: Labor Revival Needs Push From Outside and Below” 12 March, 2012 at <
http://inthesetimes.com/working/entry/12875/piven_labor_revival_needs_push_from_outside_and_below> (accessed 20 August, 2014)
Rodan, G. (2004) Transparency and Authoritarian Rule in South-East Asia: Singapore and Malaysia, (London: Routledge)
Rowley C. and Bhopal, M. (2006) “The ethnic factor in state-labour relations: The case of Malaysia” Capital and Class, 30, 1, 87-115
Schock, K. (1999) "People Power and Political Opportunities: Social Movement Mobilisation and Outcomes in the Philippines and Burma" Social Problems, 46, 3, 355-375
Scott, J. (1985) Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (Yale University Press)
Sim, S. (2006) “Hegemonic Authoritarianism and Singapore: Economics, Ideology and the Asian Economic Crisis”, Journal of Contemporary Asia, 36, 2, 143–159
Silver, B. & Zhang. L. (2009” “China as an Emerging Epicenter of World Labour Unrest” In: Hung, Ho-Fung (ed.), China and the Transformation of Global Capitalism, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 174-187
Spooner, D. (2004) “Trade Unions and NGOs: The Need for Cooperation” Development in Practice, 14 (1/2), 19–33
Sultana, A. & Noor, Z. (2011) “Gender perspective of working mothers’ challenges in their family” Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 5, 12, 727–731
Suryomenggolo, J. (2009) “Labour, Politics and the Law: A Legal Political Analysis of Indonesia’s Labour Law Reform Program” Labour and Management in Development, 9, 1–16
Tajuddin, A. (2012) Malaysia in the World Economy (1824-2011): Capitalism, Ethnic Divisions and "Managed" Democracy, (Lexington Books: UK)
Tan, CH. (2007) Employment Relations in Singapore (Pearson Prentice Hall: Singapore)
Tarrow, S. (1994) Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Mass Politics in the Modern State, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Tattersall, A. (2005) “There is Power in Coalition: A Framework for Assessing How and When Union Community Coalitions are Effective and Enhance Union Power” Labour and Industry, 16, 2, 97–112
Tattersall, A. (2010) Power in Coalition: Strategies for Strong Unions and Social Change (Ithaca: Cornell University Press)
Thawnghmung, A. (2011) "The Politics of Everyday Life in Twenty-First Century Myanmar" The Journal of Asian Studies, 70, 3, 641-656
Tilly, C. (1978) From Mobilisation to Revolution, Addison-Wesley, Reading: MA
Tumin, M. & Ndoma, I. (2013) “Virtual civil society: resurgence of social capital and the 2008 General Election in Malaysia” Malaysian Journal of Democracy and Election Studies, 1, 1, 86-95
Ufen, A. (2009) “The Transformation of Political Party Opposition in Malaysia and its Implications for the Electoral Authoritarian Regime” Democratization, 16, 3, 604-627
Verma, V. (2002a) “Debating Rights in Malaysia: Contradictions and Challenges” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 32, 1, 108–130
Verma, V. (2002b) Malaysia: State and Civil Society in Transition. Boulder: LR Publishers
Wang, LK. (2007) “Ways of seeing Malaysian women: Sketches of women in magazines in the global age” Malaysian Journal of Communication, 23, 57–69
Weiss, M. (2005) “Prickly Ambivalence: State, Society and Semi Democracy in Malaysia.” Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, 43, 1, 61–81
Weiss, M. (2009) “Edging Toward a New Politics in Malaysia: Civil Society at the Gate.” Asian Survey, 49, 5, 741–758
Welsh, B. (2013) “Malaysia’s Elections: A Step Backward” Journal of Democracy, 24, 4, 136-150
Wye, CK. & Ismail, R. (2012) “Labour market structure in Malaysia: Pre- and post-market gender comparison” International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 2, 10, 259–284
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